By 2020 the world’s population could well have doubled to around 12 billion people

By 2020 the world's population could well have doubled to around 12 billion people. Are there just too many people in the world, or is it a question of a better and fairer distribution of the world's resources?† The question is asking if there are too few resources available for the increasing population, or if there are just too many people in the world. The keywords in the question are population and resources. By population, the question is referring to the number of people in the world and by resources; it is asking if there are enough natural assets, such as water, food, oxygen and space. The problems caused by an increasing population include the depletion of natural resources, such as non-renewable energy supplies, and food supplies. Currently resources, and population are very unevenly spread and most supplies occur in areas where they are not needed. Mankind has reached the point of the exponential curve. Earths population doubled in the 40-year period from 1960 to 2000, from 3 billion to 6 billion. In the last two years, the population has grown another third of a billion people. That offers the possibility of a doubling time of only 27 years to reach 12 billion. Partly as a result of this, it is reported that 420 million people live in countries that no longer have enough cropland to grow their own food. They have to rely on imports. The reduction of cropland could be caused by an increase in pollution, creating negative effects on the environment, or it could be due to the expansion of urban areas due to an increasing population. A quarter of the developing world's cropland is being degraded, and the rate is increasing. The greatest threat may not be shortage of land, but a shortage of water. More than half a billion people live in areas prone to droughts. In the next twenty years, that number will increase five times, to between 2.4 billion and 3.4 billion people. Currently, that means half of Earth's population will run out of water within 20 years. It is impossible to farm animals and grow crops without water, which will therefore lead to a decrease in food availability, especially in areas already suffering from famines. A recent report, released by the World Watch Institute, declares that, â€Å"Mining consumes 10% of the world's energy, spews out toxic emissions, and threatens 40% of the world's undeveloped forests.† These effects could be drastically reduced but, unfortunately, governments are not moving quick enough to stem the tide. This indicates that it is suspected that a major contributing factor to the problem is the attitudes of people. Very few governments are taking radical measures in an attempt to prevent the foreseen problems of the future. The reason for this is that because the problems are not yet taking a huge effect, by the time the effect becomes apparent it will be too late, and any attempts at solving the problem will be useless. One of the great challenges for governments is to help their poorest citizens feel secure in their own homes, make a living and improve their environment. Around 1.2 billion people live in absolute poverty – surviving on less than a dollar a day. As populations spiral upward, the underground water tables are dropping. Many regions face severe drought. Deserts are growing. Forests are being cut down and the land they leave behind is wasting away. Since forty percent of all vegetable and grain food supplies come from irrigated land, a failing water supply creates sever food shortages. Many countries are facing water shortages in the twenty-first century, especially India, whose population passed one billion in May 2002. They are currently expanding by 18 million per year. Water withdrawals now double the environments ability to re-supply. Half of India's grain harvest comes from irrigated land. World Watch reports, â€Å"In a country where 53 percent of all children are already malnourished and underweight, a shrinking harvest could increase hunger-related deaths.† Another threat is shrinking croplands. Some nations already depend almost entirely upon imported food. Eventually, the food will simply not be available to those nations. First, increased costs will drain those nations of their economic cash flows, and one day, the exporting nations will not be able to supply food at any price. Among the countries where shrinking croplands threaten food supplies are Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Pakistan. Nigerias population will increase from its present 111 million to a estimated 244 million by 2050, while its grain-land per person will stay the same. That means each person will have less than half the current supply. Pakistan is expected to grow from its current 146 million to 345 million by 2050. By that time, each person will be dependent upon a piece of grain-land the size of a tennis court. Japan, South Korea and Taiwan already import 70 percent of their grain. Water supplies are fixed by nature. They cannot be increased. On the other hand, an ever-increasing population can deplete them. This is also true of croplands. I feel that although an increasing population is having a drastically negative effect upon the depletion of the world's resources, and that resources are clearly unfairly distributed. It is the richest and relatively most sparsely populated countries, particularly Western Europe and America that receive the highest share of the world's natural resources. This is because they are the richest countries and can therefore afford to grow their own resources as well as import others, yet offer very little money for them. The effect this has is that the worlds resources are being unfairly relocated into the richest countries where it could be claimed that they are being wasted. It is clear that the richest countries currently have an excess of resources that they could share across the world to help combat the problem stated by the question. The problem with this is that it is non-profitable and the countries would lose a lot of money, which in a materialistic world is more important than tackling issues of poverty and malnutrition.

Marketing and Oligopoly Market

Definition of oligopoly Oligopoly market structure is a market with few seller but large in size and their produce branded product whereby advertising is a very crucial element within the oligopoly market. Thus in the oligopoly market structure the competition between a firm with another firm is very high because they are only a few seller in the market and the price is very stable. 2. 0Characteristic of oligopoly market structure: 2. 1 Difficult to entry Oligopoly market a very difficult to enter because they also need a huge amount of capital and the expenses is very expensive.Apart from that they using a high technology in their product. Example of oligopoly market such as airlines, automobile, steel industry and oil industry. 2. 2 Similar or differentiate product In the oligopoly market sometimes they sell similar product such as oil from Saudi Arabia is the same oil in Malaysia and Thailand. For the differentiate product such as automobiles, steel industry, gas, and cell phone. 2. 3 Few seller and large in size Oligopoly market have few seller but they are very big in the economic scale because in their production they produce they product in mass production.Firm that operates in the oligopoly structure can affect the market price the example of this characteristic such as airlines, tobacco, and steel industry. 2. 4 Mutual interdependence These oligopoly market are very easily affected by the action of the other firm this means the action of the other firm will give effect to other firm because they are only a few seller thus the competition is very high. For example if one firm reduces they price the other firm will also have to follow the other firm in reducing they price.

Personal and Imaginative – Scarred for Life

This was it. My legs were lead; my head throbbed violently. It felt as if the energy within me had slowly oozed away. I dragged my feet like I was being held down by iron chains. Gathering every ounce of my might, I heaved myself towards the bench- and collapsed upon it. Where was I? No clue. That was all I'd been saying to myself since the taxi left. And how long ago was that? Two hours†¦three hours†¦four hours? Still no clue. I hated myself for being so thick. If it wasn't for my ‘thick' brain, I would have been home by now. Home. I felt useless. â€Å"What the hell you doin' ere?† I looked up so fast it made my neck click; my anger rose. It was a brown haired boy who I guessed was trying to pass the time. I found him annoying. I wasn't in the mood of talking to anyone-I hardly ever was. â€Å"You tell me.† I replied stiffly. â€Å"Ain't seen you around this place.† I felt like punching him. I hated this about some people, butting in when they were least wanted. â€Å"That's 'cause I ain't from dis place.† I grumbled, glancing at him, thinking how much longer is he going to stay? There was a pause. Then, just as soon as I expected him to leave, he demanded, â€Å"Where you from then?† â€Å"Look yeh, I don't know you an' I ain't in da mood. So move.† I stated through gritted teeth, giving him the dirtiest look I could muster. He finally got the message and went off, gruffly. I didn't understand myself; I never used to be like this. My mood switched within seconds and I knew that many people found it hard around me. Even my own mates kept their distance from me at times. But they understood that I had a past. Life had changed a lot for me, and since that change, I was never the same person. I cast my eyes around, taking in my surroundings. Even though the street lamps were alight, the road seemed unusually dark. I squinted and could just make out the scenes of every day life before me. Here and there figures would move about; some closing their shops, others walking hastily, making their way home. I gazed blankly at the movements, not bothering to move from my seat. Eventually, the very last of the people edged away towards the end of the street, their silhouettes disappearing from under the very last street lamp. Silence followed. Almost radically, a harsh wind had begun to bluster, causing my numb face to sting. Fed up with my position, I pulled up my hood, got up from the rigid bench and stepped on to the road. The sound of my trainers hitting against the pavement seemed to echo into the night, leaving behind a lethal dead-like silence like that of graveyard. Trying to block out this atmosphere, I began to recount the event that occurred on the taxi†¦ I couldn't believe my stupidity. Losing my mobile was one thing- but losing my purse-on the same day†¦a bit extreme huh? And to make matters worse, being the idiot that I am, I tried to get home in a taxi when I was totally broke! The reaction the driver had when he realised I wasn't going pay was severe to say the least. I knew people had strange solutions but leaving me in the middle of God-knows-where was a bit too strange. Sad or what? Well, what was done was done and I knew there was no way in changing it. Thinking about it wasn't going to get me anywhere. My main priority was to see how to get home. I inhaled deeply as the bleak air rushed in to my blood. What was the point in living when surviving was so hard? Upon reaching the end of the street, I became aware of the bend which had not been visible to me from the bench. It was murky and even at this distance I could not make out what lay on its other side. As I began to make my way through it, my stomach gave a discomforting squirm. I didn't know why that was? Was it the darkness that had just fallen over me? Or the strengthening of the silence which had now reached its peak? Being able to distinguish traces of a light, I became relieved to know that I had entered just another street. This time there were no shops, but instead stood half a dozen or so houses, which I could tell were grand as well as ancient. They were positioned with a great deal of space and on either side of the road which lay in front of me. At the far end, I could discriminate the park which stood out due to its rusty iron gate. As my vision became clearer, I noticed a dark profile standing within the shadow of the great oak tree. Who would be out at this time of night? Or was it a trick of light? Sensing movement, I knew for sure that it wasn't just a fragment of my imagination. My heart began to beat loudly, vibrating heavily in my throat. Now I knew I wasn't alone. It ambled out from under the tree; light shining upon its limp body. Slowly, it began dragging its body in an oddly held manner. It – he was hurt. A slow moaning uttered from his mouth, and my fear turned into grief on seeing the pain radiating from him. On realising that his direction was headed my way, I heaved my body behind the nearest bush, afraid of being seen. From his gnawed, wrinkly hands, I realised he was well aged. His face was entirely hidden, due to the hood of his festering coat. He had now reached a house opposite me, one which I had not noticed due to its miniscule size. It was dilapidated and it showed no sign of warmth. Was this his house? I heard keys dropping, breaking the silence, and watched as he bent to pick them up. As he did so, his hood fell from his face. I screamed†¦ Everything was indistinct, the face flashed in front of me again, yet this time it looked younger by a few years. I could hear loud terrible screaming from within my own head. So loud that I thought that my head would explode. The screaming went on, never ending. The pain searing in the shrill cries was too much to take in. The screaming didn't come from the face, yet I recognised it. But it couldn't be! I tried to cry for help but nothing came out. Slowly, the picture blurred and my vision became focused†¦ My inhalation was hard, my heart aching endlessly. I tried to hold my breath, trembling from head to toe. Cold sweat trickled down my face and my clothes were soaked, clinging to my skin. How much time had passed? A door slammed shut, its reverberation hanging in the atmosphere. I turned my head towards the house- had the man just gone in? It had been ten years. Ten long, painful years since I had heard my brother's voice, shrieking with agonising pain just the same as on that night. The night that I last saw him alive. Was it just a coincidence that I had just seen the convict? All I remembered was the assassin's terribly scarred face, which had appeared there on the day my brother had fought eagerly for his life, aiming viciously at his face. This man was marked – scarred for life. Since then, I had promised myself to find the man who had finished my little brother off- and now that I had found him, there was no way I was going to let him escape. Not this time. No way†¦

Tracing Dimensions of Changing Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Tracing Dimensions of Changing Culture - Essay Example The book is a collection of seven short stories beginning with â€Å"Girl with Lizard†, which tells about a boy and his obsession and desire for a mysterious painting he inherited from his parents, which drove him to unconsciously ruin his relationships with women while discovering his parent’s dark past. â€Å"A Little Fling†, a story about a husband’s political betrayal of his wife for her sake, a wife’s betrayal of her husband to spite him, the narrator’s betrayal of his friend as a result of his own naivety, and the revelation, which destroyed the intimate relationship they all shared. â€Å"The Other Man†, a story, which recounts a man’s discovery of his late wife’s affair and his realization about the truth of his marriage. The middle story, â€Å"Sugar Peas†, tells about a narcissistic man balancing his relationships with three women. â€Å"The Circumcision†, which tells of the relationship between a German man and a Jewish girl in New York, is a foray into the sensitive topic of the division caused by their culture and religion. â€Å"The Son†, on the other hand, tells of filial love, described in a dramatic fashion. The book then ends with â€Å"Woman at the Gas Station†; which narrates of a man and his decision to leave his wife. All these stories are bound by the themes of betrayal brought about by obsession, desperation, and historical circumstance – all because of and in spite of love. The themes, embodied in Flights of Love are best exemplified in his opening story â€Å"Girl with Lizard†.

Leadership Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 5

Leadership - Assignment Example This will not only divert her focus from manager’s behavior but also help in aligning her focus towards her job thereby promising better outcomes. Secondly, as Drucker (2006) asserts, taking responsibility for communication helps in demystifying many misunderstandings or notions that both have built for each other. Patricia should try to understand what tasks and responsibilities the manager has, and how her work relates with the manager’s responsibilities. Through frequent and constructive interaction, she will be able to understand and assess the manager’s expectations. Thirdly, as a new comer, Patricia is required to learn all aspects related to the job, the organization and the business before she could start delivering the desired results. This can be achieved only through extensive communication with all relevant people, which includes her manager as well. In short, adaptation to the change, effective learning and improved communication will help Patricia to change her perception towards her manager and in improving their working

Nurse as Educator Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Nurse as Educator - Essay Example In today's healthcare arena, the unique holistic perspective of nursing practice mandates that nurses possess the knowledge and skills necessary to educate various audiences in a variety of settings with efficiency and effectiveness. The fundamental ideas related to person as caring and nursing as a discipline and profession that serves as the perspective grounding for the theory Nursing as Caring. A new generic understanding of caring or of discipline and profession, but to communicate some of the ideas basic to Nursing as Caring. Caring is an essential feature and expression of being human. The belief that all persons, by virtue of their humanness, are caring establishes the ontological and ethical ground on which this theory is built. Persons as caring are a value which underlies each of the major concepts of Nursing as Caring and is an essential idea for understanding this theory and its complications. Being a person means living caring, and it is through caring that out being and all possibilities are known to the fullest. The concept of nursing situation is central to every aspect of the theory of Nursing as Caring. ... Being a person means living caring, and it is through caring that out being and all possibilities are known to the fullest. NURSING SITUATION AS THE LOCUS OF NURSING The concept of nursing situation is central to every aspect of the theory of Nursing as Caring. The nursing situation is both repository of nursing knowledge, the context for knowing nursing, shared lived experience in which the caring between the nurse and the one nursed enhances personhood. It is to the nursing situation that the nurse brings self as caring person, expressing unique ways of living, attends to calls for caring, creating caring responses that nurture personhood, in the fullness of aesthetic knowing. The nursing situation comes into being when the nurse actualizes a personal and professional commitment to the belief that all persons are caring. It should be recognized that a nurse can engage in many activities in an occupational role that are not necessarily expressions of nursing. When a nurse practices nursing thoughtfully, that nurse if guided by his or her conception of nursing. The concept of nursing formalized in the Nursing as Caring theory is at the very heart of nursing, extending back into the unrecorded beginnings of nursing and forward into the future. Remember that the nursing situation is a construct held by the nurse, any interpersonal experience contains the potential to become a nursing situation. In the formal sense of professional nursing, the nursing situation develops when one person presents self in the role of offering the professional service of nursing and the other presents self in the role of seeking, wanting or accepting

Educational Strategies for Dyslexic students Essay

Educational Strategies for Dyslexic students - Essay Example Dyslexia is found to cause extreme depression to the affected individual as he understands his inabilities and deficiency in sharp contrast to the other consummate all-rounders around him. It can greatly reduce a person's confidence as one's extreme efforts may even seem futile when normal competitors toil not even as much and achieve better results. This study shows that with the right learning techniques and an added amount of struggle, along with individual attention of a patient helper, dyslexic children can overcome this problem to a great extent in their formative years. Almost every other school teacher finds at least one incidence of dyslexia in their life-long teaching experience. Teachers often witness cases of extraordinary students suffer from acute stress in class, extreme low self-esteem and a general distrust of the world. It is quite likely they are suffering from a learning disability disorder called Dyslexia. Affected individuals, particularly those unaware of their disorder, are prone to extreme depression and suicidal tendencies which proves them to be a persistent challenge for not only the parents but also the teachers as they require more attention than the other typically developing children. Dyslexia is now declared by Psychologists to be a common learning disability that is characteristic of severe reading impairment without any physiological or psychological problems. No proven cause has been found for dyslexia except that it is surely innate.Dyslexia is a high-incidence disorder among people from all cultures, ethnic groups and socio-economic backgrounds. A tough challenge for school teachers, childhood dyslexia is found in children as a continuous difficulty in writing and reading, both lexically (confusing word meaning) or grammatically (confusing writing rules and word order), of printed words which hinders their reading capabilities. Dyslexia is a genetic neurological problem which affects both men and women equally regardless of their intelligence and is symptomized by frequent aggression, early hearing problems, embarrassment, irritability, headaches, difficulty sleeping, fingernail biting, loss of appetite, bed wetting etc. School is particularly a special challenge for dyslexic children, where so much of their day is focused on dealing with text. Their confusion with vowel sounds, letter reversals (such as 'b' for 'd', or 'p' for 'q') or the inability to write symbols in the correct sequence (such as 'tar' for 'rat') affect their comprehension of the content taught at school in great contrast to t heir typically developing classmates. Various attempts to strategize effective educational practices for these special children have brought about fruitful results when put into application at different schools. Following is a case study of a dyslexic child assigned to a single teacher, who with sufficient attention and appreciation of the teacher, along with his added amount of struggle was able to achieve second place in a class of normal students. Sam, when diagnosed with

Operations and Quality Improvement Strategies Coursework

Operations and Quality Improvement Strategies - Coursework Example Organizations can apply a set of skills and tools to reduce operational cost, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve the quality of their processes, products and services. 1. Lean Manufacturing. Critically discuss the differences, using examples, between the Lean and Mass (Traditional) Production strategies. A. Rationale: Lean Manufacturing, a Japanese philosophy, gained attention at the beginning of the 1980’s when the western leaders could not stop wondering the inimitable industrial advances and permanent employment of the Japanese businesses (A to Z Management Concepts and Models 2007). It has been described as â€Å"the most fundamental change to occur since mass production was brought to full development by Henry Ford early in the 20th century† (Hindle 2008). Lean manufacturing has been established as one of the crucial factors for Japanese success. There are two basic concepts that are involved here: making the management work to give lower cost per un it produced which directly enhances productivity, secondly, striving for continuous improvement (kaizen). Workers are expected and encouraged to adopt a new approach to their work and reap the benefit of it (A to Z Management Concepts and Models 2007). Generally, in lean production systems employees are organized in teams and each worker must be able to do all the tasks required of the team. â€Å"These tasks are less narrowly specialised than those demanded of the worker in a mass-production system, and this variety enables the worker to escape from the soul-destroying repetition of the pure assembly line† (Hindle 2008) B. Evolution: In 1776, Adam Smith in the Wealth of Nations described that mass production is based on the principles of specialization and division of labour. To design products and to set up production systems highly skilled labours are used whereas to produce standardized components and assemble them the labours used are highly unskilled. The latter are dis posable and can be laid off depending on the situation. In mass production, parts used are often manufactured elsewhere and then put together on a moving production facility called assembly line. â€Å"The result is a standardized product made in a fairly small number of varieties, produced at low cost and of mediocre quality.† If a problem needs to be corrected at any point in an assembly line the entire process stops (Hindle 2008). Lean production system requires the components to be delivered just-in-time and each worker is allowed to stop production when a fault is discovered. This is the basic difference from classic assembly line process where stoppages are expensive and should be avoided at all costs. With a mass production system the worker learn nothing because all the faulty products are put aside to be dealt with later. They are replaced immediately, from the large stock of spares, without causing any hold-ups. In case of lean production, problems are immediately r esolved when a stoppage occurs and gradually this diminishes the number of stoppages. Eventually, a mature lean-production line stops a much lesser number of times than a mature mass-production assembly line (A to Z Management Concepts and Models 2007). Yet another advantage of lean production is that designers, workers and suppliers work hand-in-hand with production which never happens in a mass-production system. A separate team of insiders or specialists participate in designing which

Using of Tress to improve the quality of urban spaces Research Proposal

Using of Tress to improve the quality of urban spaces - Research Proposal Example This contributed to numerous adverse effects brought about by the lack of vegetation. Research has highlighted that planting trees in urban spaces can contribute to numerous positive changes, improving the quality of life in urban areas. Previous studies have focused on understanding how the planting of trees in urban spaces can contribute to better climatic conditions in urban areas. Experts in this field have relied on different methodologies for assessing the impacts of different types of trees planted in urban spaces (Akbari & Pomerantz, 2001). Without doubt, the need to restructure the architecture of urban spaces by planting trees is becoming more evident in the modern society. With the increasing rates of global warming, human beings have no option, but to modify the urban spaces by planting more trees. Although there has been an emphasis on the need to plant trees on urban spaces, few of the residents in these areas recognize the benefits of trees to them. Previous studies have focused on generating scientific evidence on how trees can improve the quality of life in urban areas. Evidently, there is minimal research, which highlights how urban residents appreciate the benefits of trees and contribute positively to planting more trees in community programs. In order to ascertain the benefits of trees in improving the quality of life, the opinion of environmentalists is of critical importance. Few researchers in the past have given regard to the opinions of the environmentalists in the past. If the efforts of planting trees are to be more successful, then both environmentalists and residents of urban places should focus on a similar agenda. Therefore, this research will assess how trees in urban places improve the quality of life in accordance with environmentalists and local residen ts (Camacho-Cervantes et al, 2014). The significance of this research is to

Macbeth Analysis Essay Example for Free

Macbeth Analysis Essay The extract before me is from Macbeth written by William Shakespeare in the year 1606. It is from Act 1 Sc 7. It takes place in a room at Macbeths castle at Inverness. The extract primarily deals with the ploys that Lady Macbeth uses to persuade her husband Macbeth to commit the crime of murdering King Duncan. Two important themes are bought out in this extract, one is about the creation of gender roles and stereotypes and the second one is about appearances often being deceptive. The extract begins with Macbeth telling Lady Macbeth We shall proceed no further in this business. This is obviously referring to something which has happened before in the scene. Macbeth has been contemplating the consequences of this murder. He conceives a very apocalyptic vision of how the angels of heaven are gonna be coming and spreading the news of this murder all across. The angels are gonna be pleading for Duncans virtues and the people are gonna be actually crying and there be like a flood of tears which will drown the Earth. So, he tells Lady Macbeth that he does not wish to do away with his golden reputation, he does not want to lose its gloss and therefore, he does not want to proceed with the bloody business as he calls it. Lady Macbeth is obviously very affected by this and she ends up trying to accuse Macbeth of being unmanly. She uses adjectives like pale, green. She compares him to the poor cat in the adage. She is trying to drive the wedge between him and his doing and his desire to achieve the throne and his lack of action. Now, Lady Macbeth says, what beast was it then that made you break this enterprise to me. This is a reference to Act 1, Sc 5 because in Act 1 Sc 5, Macbeth tells Lady Macbeth about the prophecies that the witches had made and how he is supposed to become the King of Scotland after becoming the Thane of Cawdor. Now, Lady Macbeth is just wedging upon those lines saying that when you dared to commit this to me, that is when you were a man and now if you are actually gonna commit the deed of murder, you are gonna commit the heinous crime of regicide, you will be even more the man. Lady Macbeth reasons out that the time and the place were not appropriate to kill Duncan at that time but now since he has come into our battlements, he is in our castle as our guest, we are supposed to kill him. Lady Macbeth is surprised that Macbeth is losing his resolve at this time. Lady Macbeth goes on to create a very grotesque image that shows that the milk of human kindness is actually not present in her. She says that she has suckled the baby at her breast and she knows how tender it is to love the babe that milks me and she says that if she had ever said that she had committed to anyone that I am going to be killing my child, she would have actually plucked his mouth out of her nipple and dashed his brains out against the wall. This is a very grotesque image produced by Lady Macbeth has produced. This makes it clear to us that Lady Macbeth has been dehumanised, defeminised in all ways. Thus, she has achieved her wish which she asked from the spirits. She is totally unwomanly and does not have any maternal instincts. She is actually a reminder of the character Medea from the play Medea written by Euripedes because Medea had self-decided to kill her own children. Now, we see that the scene has become progressively darker with Lady Macbeth creating images of death and Macbeth ends up contemplating the possible consequences if we should fail. We should see that there are several times when Macbeth and Lady Macbeth talk about each other as being one. They perpetually use we. Macbeth has never said that i am gonna fail at the murder. He says that we should fail. This shows that there is a sense of togetherness and they are partners not only in greatness but also in crime. So, Lady Macbeth immediately retaliates but then at this time there is a shift in tone. It becomes much more pragmatic because she divulges the plan of the murder to Macbeth. There is a metaphor used over here, its about stringed instruments, now just as you take the string and you create the appropriate tension by tying it to the right peg. Similarly, Lady Macbeth expects that Macbeth decides to be headstrong and resolute and decides to screw his courage to the sticking place. If he does so, they will certainly not fail. She goes on to discuss the plan of murder with Macbeth. She says that when Duncan will be asleep and in all probability, he is likely to sleep due to his long journey. The two sentinels outside his room are gonna be intoxicated by Lady Macbeth using wine, drugs. She will make sure that they are so drunk that they will lose thier memory which has been described as the warder of the brain. The receipt of reason will not be there. Reason will actually be distilled out of their brains. They will not be able to understand anything. They will actually behave like swine and sleeping in that manner. Lady Macbeth sees it as golden opportunity to perform the murder. She once again, as I said, talks about them being one. She says what cannot you and I perform upon the unguarded Duncan? when in fact the murder is going to be committed by Macbeth alone. Lady Macbeth is obviously very important partner in his crime. Now, Lady Macbeth further tells him that they are gonna be taking the daggers and staining the officers with the blood. She expects the officers to bear the guilt of our great quell. Now, the use of the word guilt over here is very important and it is also very ironic because it is not like they do not do away with thier guilt ever. In fact, they leave in torment of the very murder. Lady Macbeth in Act 5, Sc 1 in the sleep-walking soliloquy is a woman who has completely lost her senses. She is leaving under intense emotional pressure and she is the one who is not able to sleep anymore. So, it shows that they are actually guilty of the crime. Macbeth himself in Act 2 Sc 2 does not wish to even go back to the scene of the crime again. So, it shows that even though they are gonna be staining the sentinels with blood. In fact, both of them are gonna be living in horror of the deed. Now, Macbeth seems to be quite convinced and he asks Lady Macbeth to bring forward male children only because the undaunted mettle should compose nothing but males. Now, this is very significant because it is about the creation of the gender stereotypes. In the Shakespearean area, it was expected of men to be embodiment of valour, courage and ruthlessness to some extent and woman on the other hand were expected to be more submissive and incapable of coming up with wicked plans. However Lady Macbeth is an exception to this rule because she comes across as one who is so resolute and cold, so devoid of pity that this is something which should be there only in men. Macbeth once again questions his wife and asks her that if they are gonna marking the two sleepy sentinels with blood, would it not see that they have done it. Lady Macbeth says that while they will be hysterically crying and lamenting the death of Duncan, suspicion will never fall upon them. Macbeth finally capitulates to all its wifes persuasions and he seems to have bend up each corporal agent to this terrible feat. This is a very important line in the building up of the tragic hero because Macbeth is gonna be himself responsible for his fate. He has decided to put his heart and soul into committing so heinous a crime and he is indeed gonna be bearing indeed the consequences of it as we see later in the play. The scene ends with a couplete that rhymes which is typical of Shakespeare. It says that Away, and mock the time with fairest show: false face must hide what the false heart doth know. So, it recounts the theme that appearances are often deceptive. This theme has been running throughout the play. It all began with King Duncan in Act 1 Sc 2 when he wished that he would be able to recognise people by simply looking at their faces. It is also present in Act 1 Sc 5 when Lady Macbeth asks her husband to look like the innocent flower but be the serpent under it. This time Macbeth is the one who is actually telling his wife that she is suppose to be having composure, she is suppose to conceal her ulterior motives and her false face must hide the real intentions that she has. In conclusion, i can say that there is a big contrast between the characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Macbeth is the one who is contemplating the fear of failure. He says that we should fail, what would happen. He is no doubt ambitious but at the same time he also comes across as a rational being.

Timber Frame Housing Construction

Timber Frame Housing Construction Timber frame housing a viable alternative to masonry Construction 1.1 Introduction Chapter one of this dissertation will review relevant articles of primary and secondary data to evaluate the hypothesis: Timber Frame construction a viable alternative to masonry construction. The main objective of this literature review is to increase the knowledge and understanding of the research and to critically apprise all that has been researched on timber frame construction in comparison to masonry construction. The literature review will be categorised into the following areas: Environmental impact Factors effecting Construction Costs. ( time savings, prelim costs Barriers effecting timber frame Fire resistance, acoustic, Thermal etc The literature review compares the opinion of other researchers and what they have discovered and done in relation to such aspects in timber frame construction 1.2 Environmental impact of timber frame construction in comparison to masonry construction. 1.2.1 Materials Roaf (2004 p.13) quotes buildings are our third skin. To survive we need shelter from the elements using three skins the first is provided by our own skin, the second by a layer of clothes and the third is the building. In some climates it is only with all three we can provide sufficient shelter to survive, in others the first skin is enough. The more extreme the climate, the more we have to rely on the building to protect us from the elements. Just as we take off and put on clothes as the weather and the climate changes so we can alter our buildings to adopt climate change Therefore one must investigate which method of construction is best suited to ones needs taking into account costs, environmental consequences and aspects such as thermal, acoustical and fire resistance so therefore they can life in a comfortable dwelling There appears to a be a huge demand in the construction industry to improve the efficiency in buildings, therefore to control climate change and to make this happen one must look firstly on the construction of our buildings and what method has the best impact on the environment. The author feels there is a strong case for investigating the timber frame approach as it has a potential for creating sustainable homes. Practices such as energy efficiency, recycling and the use of sustainable materials and products need to become inherent parts of the design and construction process and in some cases, displace traditional construction process and practices sustainable homes (2000), As Some materials used in construction can damage the environment: they can create pollution, while others are produced in an energy intensive process. Reclaimed material and products made from recycled material are less likely to cause environmental damage. It is important that materials should be judged on their lifecycle and their performance once they are installed. Buchann and honey, (1994) also suggest that there is a growing awareness that in the choice of building materials, the designer must not only consider the traditional requirements, but also the resource base and the effects on the environment of extraction, manufacture and processing of the building material, as the amount of primary energy used can have huge effects on greenhouse gas emissions. Borjesson and Gustavasson (2000) agrees with this statement as he suggests that, The substitution of sustainability produced wood material for other construction materials can reduce net Co2 emissions, Quack (2001) is in support of this statement with after the results of his study show that the life cycle of each house is independent of the construction materials. Sustainable homes (2000) discuses that timber is possibly the only renewable resource in the construction sector. According to Timber construction (2007) timber frame construction is the only environmentally friendly material available, as it claimed to be a carbon neutral. Claiming 800 kg of carbon dioxide is saved for every cubic meter of wood used. Stating that when comparing a 100m2 timber frame and masonry house, a total of 4 tonnes of carbon dioxide could be saved as a timber frame dwelling contains 5-6 cubic meters mores timber IPCC (1996) agrees that the manufacture of wood products normally requires less energy than that of alternative product which in results compares to the statements made above. Noren (2001) studied timber frame and traditional masonry houses over their lifecycle and claims that timber frame houses are a better environmental change to implement as carbon dioxide is reduced on every stage of the buildings life. Sutton (2007) is in agreement with this statement, claiming timber frame emit 16.5 % less carbon dioxide over the life of the building in comparison to its counterpart masonry construction. But However Brunklaud and baumann (2002) suggest after having examined reports on the environmental impacts of different materials on timber frame and masonry construction that wood has the lowest environmental impact in terms of embodied carbon dioxide emissions, but however over a complete lifecycle, building operational emissions is the most important factor regardless of the materials chosen, and that it is improvements to reduce operational emissions that will benefit the overall environmental impact of a building. Bjorklund and Tillman (1997) also agree as results show that timber frame has a better environmental impact at manufacture stage but however masonry can match timber frame over the life of the building Sustainable homes (2000) indicates that buildings accounts for 50% of all co2 emission and on average a house produces 7.5 tonnes of co2 every year, four tonnes if built to current regulations. It is not therefore, difficult to see the benefits of increasing the insulation capacity of the building envelope as one mechanism for reducing the amount of fossil fuels required in running our homes This statement above agrees to such statements from the majority of authors such as Buchann and honey, Borjesson and Gustavasson, Brunklaud and baumann, that much thought should be put into materials such as the fabric, structure of your house and your insulating materials therefore reducing the need of burning fossil fuels Although timber frame has a better environmental impact at manufacture stage from reports above it can be argued that masonry can achieve as a good an impact on the environment as timber frame over the life of the building. 1.2.2 Waste Impact A dictionary definition of environment waste is that of any substance, solid, liquid or gaseous for which no use can be found by the organisation or system that produces it for which a method of disposal must be devised. (RICS, 2009) However (Mnyani 2003, pg4-5) describes it as any waste that is generated during the process of construction, leftovers that are to be disposed post construction and this includes demolition debris. The construction industry is one of the largest industrial sectors in the UK, Construction and demolition waste represents roughly 17 per cent of total waste production in the UK, making the construction industry the largest generator of controlled waste in the country (DETR, 1999). It is estimated that some 70 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste arise annually (Environment Agency Website, 2000). Ekanaye Ofori 2000 indicate from their study on 230 different building sites, they found that waste levels for specific materials is consistently higher than the estimated level for all materials studied. New purchases to replace wasted materials rework to correct mistakes, delays and dealing with generated waste cause heavy financial losses to the contractor. Therefore the author feels the use of timber frame construction will play a good role in reducing waste as the timber frame panels arrive on site and are erected in a matter of hours in support of this (Glynn, 2000) points out that Arrival on site timber frame kit and erected in less than a week, approx 1 4 days This therefore cuts out on materials been damaged as a result of lying around the site, but however (Johnson, 1981p6) states that Waste occurs on site for a number of reasons, most of which can be prevented, this waste can occur form the Misinterpretation of drawing, Overestimating of quantity required, Faulty workmanship and Careless handing of materials. From this statement timber frame construction exceeds masonry as wastage on site can be reduced significantly by the maximum use of prefabricated units. As well as reducing wastage, quality control and efficiency during manufacture of standard materials in the factory means that the net amount of material required for production of the final component is minimised. Factory conditions make the use of off cuts more likely. Recycling and reuse of materials have long been associated with wise construction practises. Experienced contractors are now reaping the economic advantage of construction waste management. Many of the contractors that have embraced waste management have made changes to their operation and practices to take advantage of reduced waste disposal costs and revenues derived from recycle, reuse and salvage materials. Utilizing, reuse and salvage methods on site reduces materials that end up in the landfill, creates a cleaner and safer project site and improves community relations. 1.3 Factors effecting costs. Mark Windsor spokesperson for Design and Materials Company suggests that costs for masonry are the same for timber frame houses http://www.designandmaterials.uk.com/materials/brick-and-block.html To evaluate this statement Glynn (2000) demonstrates a construction programme in the following charts. Timber Frame Programme Foundations for kit are prepared, approx 1.5 weeks. Arrival on site timber frame kit and erected in less than a week, approx 1 4 days. External doors and windows fitted to seal house from external elements, approx 1 week. During phase three the roof is erected, felted and battened and tiled, approx 1.5 weeks. External cladding completed approx 1.5 weeks. During phase five, first fix electricity, plumbing and carpentry can begin, approx 2.5 weeks. Internal wiring and pipe work to be complete, approx 2 3 days. Drying out period, approx 2 4 days. Start second fix services, approx 2 3 weeks. Decoration can now begin and client takes over. This concludes timber frame programme at twelve weeks. Source (Kenneth Glynn, Prefabricated timber frame construction, 2000) Traditional masonry programme Foundations for kit are prepared, approx 1.5 weeks. Masonry envelope can commence approx 4 5 weeks. About one week after envelope commenced, fixing and glazing the doors, approx 3 weeks. During phase three, the roof is erected, felted and battened and tiled, approx 1.5 weeks. Note scaffolding will be on site for the majority of the above. During phase five, first fix electricity, plumbing and carpentry can begin, approx 2.5 weeks. Internal wiring and pipe-work to be complete, approx 2 3 days. Start second fix services, approx 2 3 weeks. Decoration can now begin and client takes over. This concludes traditional masonry programme at about twenty weeks. Source (Kenneth Glynn, Prefabricated timber frame construction, 2000) In examination of the construction programmes, there is a large differential in time scale between inception and move in dates. It is possible to come to the conclusion based on the solid facts that the programmes portray to us that the development of the timber frame house is by far the most efficient in terms of speed in completion. The difference in weeks is quite substantial with the programme of development comprising of the timber frame method of construction far more efficient with an overall saving of about eight to nine weeks. A timber house is usually watertight by week five of the build; by contrast a traditional masonry house is not watertight for nine or ten weeks. Traditional construction methods are extremely vulnerable to inclement weather conditions. Such inclement weather conditions will cause delay to the overall completion of the project, this is not a factor for timber frame construction as all internal works can began at week five, despite any external weather c onditions. By Glynn 2000 contrasting these two construction programmes it shows that the timber frame programme would offer a rapid development construction to meet market demand thus providing a return on your development almost of immediate effect. In support of Glynn an article in built it magazine states When comparing timber frame to masonry, masonry is generally the slower of the two. However this article indicates one must factor in time it takes to get a timber frame onto site from the date it is ordered, which can take up to 16 weeks ( Build It magazine, published May 2008.) However from examining Glynn 2000 construction programme there are direct costs saving advantages such as reduced construction time, overheads and less waste. Other factors that should be considered when carrying out a cost benefit analysis are the preliminaries costs as early off-hire of cranes and scaffolding due to reduced construction times and also reduced on site labour which saves money. With brick and block, build costs are spread over a longer period of time. However one must consider the overall programme cost reductions by timber frame construction. Timber Frame is touted to have the following advantages: That it is a faster method of construction with the ability to halve the total on-site construction duration; That it requires less on-site labour; That large number of units can be constructed within a short time; That the faster construction and reduced on-site work brings financial benefits to the developer in terms of shorter period of financing the project and completed buildings being put up for sale much faster. Factory-produced homes are usually erected on site in a matter of days. Once up, the internal finishes can be started right away, which can produce further time savings. However, there may be lengthy delays involved in getting the frame built. Also bear in mind that thin-joint masonry promises many of the speed advantages of timber frame. The NHBC estimates up to a three-month time saving by choosing timber. On Price For many years, timber frame used to be thought of as a little more expensive, but advocates claimed that you could claw back any extra expense by shortening the length of the job overall, thus reducing overhead and finance costs. However, more recently the picture has become confused. Blocklayers became very expensive, eroding the cost differential; while timber frame factories became very busy, lengthening the time taken to process the orders, and thus losing much of the speed advantage. The fact is that there really isnt that much cost difference. As a rule, masonry sits better (and cheaper) behind a brick or stone skin, whilst timber frame comes into its own behind a lightweight external skin such as timber. Representatives of both timber frame and brick and block would agree that there is relatively not much of a difference in the cost between the two constructions techniques. If timber frame is chosen for its quick build time, One believes that overall the cost benefits of timber frame houses offer better value as the proposed development would include rapid construction to meet market demand thus providing a return on your development almost of immediate effect. . The speedy construction of timber framed houses enables the contractor to construct a large number of houses in a relatively short period of time. A timber frame house owner would also have the added benefit of a more energy efficient home 1.4 Perception of timber frame and its barriers: The use of timber frame construction of houses has faced many challenges in recent years as other materials such as sandcrete blocks, concrete blocks and brick replaced timber as main building construction materials due to many barriers such as psychological barriers mainly form general public. The public perception of timber frame construction in comparison to the traditional masonry construction. B.k. Baiden, E. Badu, F.S Menz (2004) is as follows Timber can consumed by fire if used in building construction, Durability is relatively poor structural ability The lack of understanding and cynical views expressed by the public on the fire resistance, durability and structural properties of timber frame structures initially made Timber frame construction to received negative comments throughout the last few decades and has came under scrutiny which has influenced the negative perception the general public have adopted The timber frame industry was effectively killed off overnight in the early 1980s, after the world in action programme raised a number of doubts about the standards of construction Barrys (2002) Timber frame construction has received negative comments throughout the last few decades and has come under scrutiny which has influenced the negative perception the general public have adopted. Some members of the public associate timber with been a fuel for fire and therefore timber frame structures are more liable to ignite. The author feels this is a harsh and unjust assessment, which has restricted the growth of timber frame housing during the 1980s and the early 1990s when it could have gained a valuable foot hold in the housing market during this period. However in recent years the only slight concerns remain in the public domain and this has helped timber frame housing to gain a 30% share in the domestic housing market. Many professionals in the timber frame industry believed that consumers no longer had doubts regarding fire, which will be illustrated later in the questionnaire conducted by the author. Government reports indicate that There are some residual reservations about timber frame among architects, engineers, builders, administrative bodies, financial institutions and insurance companies as well as with end users. Perceived problems with timber frame construction in the housing market from both the end users and local authorities would include a perceived greater risk of fire, issues of sound attenuation in a timber structure and the impact such a structure might have on the security of the end user. however Narty 1971 states that Timber constructed houses can be built to last for a period of 40-100 years, this suggests that timber frame construction is every bit as good as the traditional masonry method. Most people perceive a brick block house to be more solid than timber frame http://www.buildstore.co.uk/mykindofhome/events/different-building-systems-weekend-in-detail.html Traditional masonry cavity walls, most commonly brick with an inner structural leaf of concrete block, have dominated house building in the UK for the past eighty years, but there are a number of other systems that are gradually making inroads, including timber frame, http://www.cyprus-property-buyers.com/files/constructionmethods.pdf One question that perpetually raises its head is which is cheapest of the two most prevalent systems timber frame or brick and block? The author will look in great detail at the properties in timber frame buildings to evaluate the perception in the industry towards timber frame and why they think masonry is the better construction overall. 1.4.1 Fire resistance: Barry (1998) states that although timber is a combustible material, it can function as a structural member for a longer period than an unprotected metal member provided it is of adequate section White (1999) agrees with this statement saying The relatively good structural behaviour of timber in fire is due to the fact that it has uniform strength through the mass. The load bearing capacity is therefore reduced in proportion to the loss of the cross section, the unburned section, however, retains a full high strength Forest products research institute (1988) also agrees with this; as the results from a study showed that timber of sufficient size is difficult to burn because of cross sections decompose relatively slowly due to its low thermal conductivity and the formation of charcoal on the outer sections Sustainable houses (2000) agrees with the above as it states that timber frame homes tested to BS476 demonstrate that they exceed these requirements BRE structural survey (2002) indicates that in the TF 2000 BRE project no evidence to suggest that timber frame construction suffers disproportionally form problems of poor workmanship or that it is exposed to higher risks of fire spread than traditional masonry counterpart. In support of this TRADA and BRE fire safety research concluded that Timber frame performs as well as other construction in fire and life safety is at no greater risk. 1.4.2 Thermal: Sustainable (2000) suggests that one of the most commonly identified advantages of timber frame systems in relation to thermal performance, The most important factor by far being the structural envelope. The most basic timber frame home will exceed current building regulations requirements In support of this statement Doran (2008) BRE states timber frame insulation solutions lend themselves to going significantly beyond the minimum thermal performance requirements Timber frame can easily meet current regulations by increasing stud size therefore increasing the amount of insulation, giving a better U-value. With the governments publication of new regulations in 2006 part L relating to energy conservation and ventilation in new homes Timber frame uk suggests that with the introduction of these new part L regulations for new built homes timber frame housing has increased because of its suitability for modern building and it can comply with the new regulations so easily and cost effectively With timber being a poor conductor of heat Barry (1993), the thermal conductivity is very low making it a natural insulator which is two to four times of common insulating materials Simpson (1999) However Doran 2008 indicates that to achieve the expected thermal performance in timber frame dwellings requires good workmanship 1.4.3 Acoustic: Sound is a form of energy which can be transmitted over a distance from its source through a medium, such as air or a solid element of construction e.g. a wall or a floor. A construction based website Homebuilding.Co.uk indicates that heavyweight building techniques have a clear advantage here. But in detached housing, the chief area of concern is noise between floors and most masonry homes actually have timber intermediate floors, so in this respect there is little difference http://www.homebuilding.co.uk/feature/construction-systems-masonry-vs-timber Sustainable (2000) indicates that timber frame masonry outperforms masonry party walls by some margin In support of this Trada (2000) agrees with this statement indicating lightweight timber frame party walls between semi-detached or terraced houses and flats and party floors between flats meet the current requirements of the building regulations for sound insulation. However many authors argue this (.) stating that building mass is the only way to provide high sound insulation. An article by Clive Fewins, published in home building and Renovating magazine agrees with the above statement with regards to the public perception, where the public perception of masonry built is strong and durable A masonry structure gives a house a feeling of solidity, as the density of the blocks provides a high level of acoustic mass Trada state Its interesting that even our standard 140mm timber frame walls are 20 per cent more thermally efficient than current building regulations demand. Sound insulation is more efficient too with a timber frame, compared with other methods of construction. This public perception of the acoustic performance of timber frame has also played a role in hindering the growth of timber frame housing but these unsubstantiated views have been contradicted by a number of independent assessments within the industry. However BRE are in favour of timber frame building stating, If all dwellings had sound insulation as good as that measured in party walls of timber frame homes, the problems of noise from neighbours would be greatly reduced. Just like any other new homes, when built with good standards of workmanship, timber frame homes will meet all current Building Regulations and Standards on sound insulation and acoustic performance. It is commonly assumed that only solid walls that are found in traditional masonry houses can guarantee you peace and quiet. In 2003 tests were carried out by (BRE) the Building Research establishment on Robust Details that can be used by any designer and house builder, this research proved that timber frame houses performed best out of any construction method. This research was also reviewed on the UKs largest database of test cases on sound performance going back over 17 years, by Dr Sean Smith of Napier University who also stated the superior sound performance of timber frame houses. A statement from Dr Sean smith in a recent website article on timber frame construction shows after researching on acoustical performance how he personally feels timber frame can easily outperform current regulations Our research shows that timber frame party walls are the best performing in the industry for current and future regulations. The (Irish timber frame association) suggest the importance of mass has always been perceived as been vital to achieve good sound insulation, however reliance on mass alone would be impractical and a largely unpopular method of improving sound performance. In recent years other characteristics have became more important such as isolation, stiffness, absorbency and air tightness. Isolation makes it more difficult for sound to propagate through the building by introducing physical breaks, this is an important for good sound insulation, and the cavity walls in both house types perform this function. Stiffness of structural members, gives greater resistance to structure borne vibration caused by sound. Absorbency in voids helps dampen sound and finally by ensuring the separating structures are totally sealed, sound leakage through gaps is avoided. It is widely accepted that timber frame construction is exploiting these characteristics and is well ahead of other methods when the regulatio ns change in the future. Noise nuisance within homes is becoming a more widespread concern in modern times as ownership televisions, stereos and game consoles are at an all time high and this is causing conflict among neighbours. The findings of BRE have contradicted the public perception that mass is essential to gain high-quality acoustic performance. Durability: Narty (1971) argues that The Durability of timber is often discussed with reference to fungi, or insect attack. In absence of these, timber is remarkably resistant and will survive for long periods of time; the author has found such evidence as the Egyptian tombs which are over 200 years old. BRE (1996) conducted two large scale independent surveys and found no instances of rot caused by water ingress. And all timber exposed areas (Cavity) that are preservative treated shall cause little trouble In support of this Simpson (1999) agrees with this statement suggesting that timber kept constantly dry does not decay and a large proportion timber used is kept dry and can last for very long periods 1.5 Advantages of timber frame over masonry: Timber frame offers a number of advantages compared to most other forms of construction The previously stated the u turn for the rise in popularity for timber frame methods of construction has not been unfounded, with large benefits to the client and contractor been identified as the basis for this success. Many of the countrys contractors in the housing are now seriously considering this technique because it, provides high quality houses, quickly and cost effectively Source (Prefabrication-solution to an overstretched industry, Nov 2001, The Irish construction Industry Magazine) The greater use of well-designed timber frame houses will help ease the pressures on traditional construction trades, it also has the benefit of helping to speed up projects and help ensure cleaner and safer sites Source (Webb, M., The construction magazine, Prefabrication Report) On Speed Factory-produced homes are usually erected on site in a matter of days. Once up, the internal finishes can be started right away, which can produce further time savings. However, there may be lengthy delays involved in getting the frame built. Also bear in mind that thin-joint masonry promises many of the speed advantages of timber frame. The NHBC estimates up to a three-month time saving by choosing timber.

Essay --

Ross Ebster Scott Yates English 1B 16 November 2013 Waking Up From the Nightmare: From Marx to Miller Arthur Miller’s Death Of A Salesman is a modern day tragedy that roots itself with those who try to obtain the American Dream but are unsuccessful in their pursuit. Miller’s play revolves around the continual chase of this ideology and poses the question of whether attempting to â€Å"keep up with the Joneses† can be more of a nightmare than dream. Karl Marx’s ideology introduces the socioeconomic conflict between the capitalists and the working class. Marx referred to these opposing forces as the â€Å"haves and have-nots†. Looking at Death Of A Salesman through Karl Marx’s viewpoint can help shed light to Miller’s commentary and possible rejection of American capitalism during the late 1940’s. The protagonist, Willy Loman shows an insatiable struggle to fit into the right part of society and his desperation to have himself and his sons as one of the â€Å"haves†. The view Miller gives of the American Dream shows the soc ial and economic perspective of post-war America and how those views relate to social class. To fully understand this idea in context, one must define the idea of the American Dream. The basis of the American Dream at that time was that financial success through capitalism was the sole foundation for happiness. Marx’s view also helps to point out the overt theme of materialism in the play. â€Å"Marx professed materialism but generally tried to distinguish his views from the mechanical materialism which regarded man as a machine, or which reduced all human behavior to the laws of physics and chemistry† (Mayo 34). To Marx, materialism was a neutral notion; neither moral nor immoral. It was comprised of a simple acceptance of the â€Å"evid... ...changed young Biff’s life. â€Å"That boy — that boy is going to be magnificent! (Ben appears in the light just outside the kitchen.) . . .Yes, outstanding, with twenty thousand behind him.† (cite) Part of what makes this play so tragic is that if Willy had chosen acceptance and individuality instead of materialism he would have seen he had already achieved the American Dream by having the love of his family. Much of this play parallels the author’s own life, â€Å"He grew up white and Jewish in Harlem. Mr. Miller's comfortable childhood in the era of radio was transformed by his father's ruin in the Depression and the family's forced move from their Upper West Side apartment at the edge of Harlem to Brooklyn† (Shattuck 43). Death Of A Salesman heeds a well-deserved warning about the dangers of materialism and the risk of using capitalism as the sole backbone of prosperity.

Roman Life :: essays research papers

-BREATH- Since a Roman’s life is very busy and complicated, I picked a couple sub topics for my report. I picked daily meal routines like breakfast, lunch, and dinner, the Forum, Roman school, the public baths, and houses. -BREATH- Most sources say Romans ate three meals a day. The first two would be very small. -BREATH- The very poor people would be glad to even enjoy one meal a day. -BREATH- Breakfast, called ienaculum, would consisit of bread dipped in watered down wine. Sometimes a little honey would be used or dates and olives. -BREATH- Lunch, called prandium, if eaten at all, would be made up of fruits, bread, cheese, or leftovers from the previous night. -BREATH- Dinner, called cena, was the main meal of the day, served in the late afternoon. For the lower class, cena consisted of vegetables and olive oil. For the high class, it would be a seven-course meal. The typical dinner had three courses. -BREATH- The 1st course, called gustus, was appetizers. Mulsum (MULSUM!!!), wine mixed with honey, would be served along with salad, eggs, shellfish, mushrooms, etc. -BREATH- The 2nd course, the meat course, or called lena, would provide pork, poultry, fish, animals hunted, or exotic birds served with veggies. -BREATH- The final course, called the secundae mensae or second table was given its name because at dinner parties, the entire table was removed after the first 2 courses, and a new one was put in its place for desert. This course had fruits, honey cakes, nuts, and wine. -LONG BREATH- For my next sub topic is the Forum. The Forum was the main marketplace and the buisness center, where the ancient Romans went to do their banking, trading, clothes shopping, and marketing. -BREATH- It was also a place for public speaking. The ancient Romans were great speakers and loved to talk. They thought the job of an orator was not to argue, but to argue persuasively. People browsing the Forum would stop and listen, then go back and shop, and maybe leave a sacrifice at a temple or two. -BREATH- The Forum was also used for religous ceremonies and festivals. It was a very busy place! -LONG BREATH- My third topic is Roman school. In school, the goal of education in ancient Rome was to be an effective speaker. The school day began before sunrise, as did all work in Rome. Kids brought candles to use until daybreak. There was a rest for lunch and the afternoon siesta, and then back to school until late afternoon.

How To Listen To Music, Not Just Hear It Essay example -- essays resea

How to Listen to Music, Not Just Hear it   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To learn to listen to music, not just hear itYou need the right room, the right equipment, the perfect volume, the perfect spot, and (of course), the embracing of the music. After you have all the proper tools, you can sit and enjoy the music. The first consideration is to listen to music in a comfortable chair. I would highly recommend a good quality Lazy Boy recliner. Now, you need to find the best room to put that chair in, so you can listen to you music. The room can be any normal room with four walls but, the room can't be wide open. For example, it can't be an unfinished basement with concrete walls and a cement floor. The sound will not be able to bounce off the walls and give the effect as if the sound is coming from behind you, as well as in front of you (the surround effect). A good room to listen in, is a typical family room with sheet rock walls and four ninety degree corners. The second consideration is placement of speakers. The corners of a room are the perfect spot for your speakers. You shouldn't position them flush against the wall, but put the back of the speaker into the corner, so each side of the speaker is against each wall. For this reason, the bass is extended (louder), and the tweeters, mid-range, and woofers give you their undivided attention. Where to sit is simple, but it takes some easy calculations to find the perfect spot. There is a common rule for a person to experience...

Mental illness and prison

From the 1960’s to the 1980’s, the deinstitutionalization movement demanded that the mentally ill be treated in the community, using new drug therapies that appeared to control even the most extreme behaviors of the mentally ill.   This liberation of psychiatric patients was reinforced by court decisions that awarded certain legal rights to the emotionally ill.   But few community-based programs were developed to treat psychiatric patients effectively.   Released to the community without adequate support and treatment services, the mentally ill gravitated to criminal confinement facilities for offenders, particularly the jail but also to the prisons of the United States. It is estimated that about 15 percent of offenders imprisoned at any time have severe or acute mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, manic-depression illness, and depression.   Approximately 10 to 15 percent of persons with these three illnesses die by suicide.   Yet current treatment is extremely effective, if given.   Prisoners tend to be in poor mental health and about 80 percent of male prisoners and 80 percent of female jail inmates will, over their lifetime, have at least one psychiatric disorder. The greater the level of disability while in prison, the more likely the inmate is to receive mental health services.   In practice, proportionately more female prisoners use mental health services than do males, and whites are more likely to seek or secure prison mental health services than others.   At least half of the inmates who need such treatment go without it (Sigurdson, 2001). While the U.S. Supreme Court has not found that inmates have a constitutional right to treatment, it has ruled an inmate’s constitutional right to medical treatment includes the right to treatment for serious emotional illness.   The correction system is caught in the middle.   Institutions are not required to provide services simply because their clients are criminals, and thus have shifted critical funds to other uses, such as increased security staffing.   The threat of potential litigation has meant that some revision and provisions of mental health services for seriously ill inmates is necessary. As the mentally ill become a larger segment of the population in jails and prisons, professionals in the mental health field became essential to the correctional administrators.   The ratio of mental health practitioners to inmates remains much too low, there has been some progress.   Because many institutions must deal with mental health issues on a priority basis, few to no services are provided for the majority who do not exhibit violent or bizarre behavior.   It is a practical fact that in corrections â€Å"the squeaky wheel gets the grease† (Steadman, 1991). For some inmates, the impacts of prison life overwhelm their usual coping patterns.   Some factors that lead to prison psychosis include the routine of prison, fear of other inmates, forced homosexual behavior, assault and fear of assault, deteriorating in affairs and circumstances of family on the outside of prison and depression.   When the psychological crisis comes, correctional administrators frequently transfer affected inmates to prison infirmaries or psychological treatment words, or initiate inmate transfer to a mental health system. Long-term and intensive psychotherapy for mentally ill inmates is believed to be rare.   Treatment for episodic mental crisis tends to remain at the first aid level in many states.   Death rows do not usually contain a large proportion of a prison’s population but subsume a disproportionate share of the per inmate cost due to the demands of observing, caring, and maintaining death row.   That includes a lower staff-inmate ratio, mail processing, death-watch officer workload, closer custody during recreational periods and so on.   Some inmates on death row become mentally ill and as such cannot be executed (Ford v. Wainright, 106 S. Ct. 2595, 1986). The state has an additional burden of determining if the death-row inmate is insane, establishing some procedure to restore the inmate to sanity, and then certifying the sanity of the patient-inmate.   Because this would be tantamount to a death sentence and not a favor for the inmate, it is unlikely mental health physicians would undertake that process alone or with any great enthusiasm.   It remains for the states to develop procedures for identifying, diagnosing, treating, and certifying the sanity of death row inmates who claim to be insane (Steadman & Monahan, 1984). For the extreme behavior cases, there are special units for more intensive treatment, such as the one in Washington State.   That unit is a model of how to deal with extreme mentally and behaviorally disordered prisoners.   Unfortunately, that facility can handle only 144 inmates.   The figure is only about one-tenth of the commonly recognized population of inmates who could use more intensive mental health services.   One quickly finds that only the really severe cases are able to be referred to the Special Offender Center. It appears that the relationship between crime and mental disorder has no real cause effect.   It is essential for society to learn more about distinguishing between different kinds of mental illness and their impacts on safe and secure administration of correctional institutions.   It is important to remember that the real link to look for is one that indicates the potential for harm to the mentally ill person and others.   It may be a long time before such options are available to the already overcrowded corrections system in the United States (Wessely & Taylor, 1991). There are two justifications that defendants can invoke in an attempt to relieve themselves of criminal responsibility for a criminal act.   The first is not guilty by reason of insanity and the second is incompetent to stand trial.   In the first instance, offenders do not deny the commission of the act, but assert they lacked the capacity to understand the nature of the act or that it was wrong. The second instance is based on the common law criterion that defendants must be able to understand the charges against them to cooperate with their counsel in the preparation of their own defense.   The procedures for determining competency vary considerably among jurisdictions, but most make it a court decision based on psychiatric testimony.   If defendants are found incompetent to stand trial, then they are usually committed to a mental institution until declared competent (Hans, 1986). Psychiatric judgment of mental abnormality enters into the criminal law in three ways.   Aside from fitness to stand trial and criminal responsibility, if an individual is convicted, psychiatry is often consulted in designing a custodial or treatment program for him or her. One problem in the use of psychiatry in the legal system is that there are vast and irreconcilable differences in the legal standards; fairness is achieved by responding to a specific act with a specific type of reaction while ignoring a mass of details about the accused. On the other hand, in the mental health approach of psychiatry the whole personality of the accused is relevant in determining the state’s response to criminal behavior.   Psychiatry is an applied science, but legal practice makes no such claim.   Clearly, as long as a judge and jury have such important roles in the court process, convicted criminals cannot be treated primarily according to scientific standards.   While it is customary for a judge and jury to participate in the legal process, we would find their dealing with matters of mental health bizarre and while the legal process is typically open to scrutiny by all people affected, the procedures of psychiatry are almost never made public.   The types of accountability of the legal and mental health systems are quite different. If a court correctly describes the facts of a case and chooses the correct legal response to these facts, the court is never held accountable for any negative consequences flowing from its actions, such as the suicide of a convicted offender.   What ultimately happens to the convicted offender or whether the offender’s family must go on welfare is not the court’s concern.   The judge is not bound to such utilitarian considerations.   However the judge is bound by law to a specific range of responses.   Psychiatry, on the other hand, is responsible for how its decisions affect the individual in the future (Galliher, 1989). With the advent of legal insanity and legal incompetence as defenses against criminal conviction caused the development of special asylums for the criminally insane, in most cases just another form of prison without due process protections.   In more recent years those claiming to be not guilty by reason of insanity have been the subjects of considerable debate.   President Nixon sought to have the not guilty by reason of insanity defense abolished.   More informed criminologists point to such problems with the insanity defense as excessive media coverage, suspicion of malingering by the defendant, and conflicting and suspicious testimony by mental health professionals testifying for either the defense or the prosecution. The insanity defense is used in less than 1 percent of all felony cases and of those only one in four are found to be not guilty by reason of insanity.   One study found only the most emotionally and behaviorally disturbed defendants to be successful in their plea and that the successful petitioners had committed more serious offenses.   The decision to acquit is more frequently made in court b y prosecutors, defense attorneys, and the judge, and less frequently by jury members.   Persons acquitted by the not guilty by reason of insanity are generally found less likely than their cohort offenders to commit crimes after release (Hans, 1986). Prosecutors often hope that those accused offenders acquitted through the plea of not guilty by reason of insanity will be institutionalized for a period sufficient to reduce their dangerousness, and to provide both public and safety and some retribution.   The debate continues.   Perhaps the most reasonable solution would be to determine guilt first and then sift the issue of diminished capacity or insanity in that case to the sentencing or case disposition state.   The American Psychiatric Association, following the attack by John Hinckley on the life of President Reagan, recognized that position. As a response, by 1986, twelve states abolished the insanity defense entirely then created guilty by mentally ill statutes in its place.   Under those statues, an offender’s mental illness is acknowledged but not seen as sufficient reason to allow him or her to escape criminal responsibility.   If convicted, offenders are committed to prison.   Some states will provide mental health treatment in the prison setting, but others may transfer the offender to a mental health facility for treatment.   In Georgia, defendants who entered insanity pleas but were determined guilty by mental illness received harsher sentences than their counterparts, whose guilt was determined in trial suggesting increased punishment for the disturbed offender (Callahan, McGreevy & Cirincione, 1992). Persons with mental disability, such as mentally disturbed or disorders, were once scorned, banished, and even burned as evil.   But in more enlightened times we have built backwoods fortresses for them to protect ourselves from contagion.   They have been executed as witches, subjected to exorcism, chained or thrown into gatehouses and prisons to furnish a horrible diversion for the other prisoners.   Before the Middle Ages persons with a mental illness were generally tolerated and usually cared for locally by members of their own family, tribal system, or primitive society. However widespread poverty, disease, and religious fanaticism seemed to trigger intolerance for any unexplainable deviation from the norm.   The mentally disturbed were thought to be possessed by devils and demons and were punished harshly because of it.   The first insane asylum was constructed in Europe in 1408.   From that date until recently the asylum was a dumping ground for all the mentally disordered people that could be neither understood nor cured. In the United States, one after another of the individual states responded to that compelling method of ridding society of misfits, and built numerous institutions during the mid 1800’s.   The inflated claims of cures for mental illness could not stand up against the process of institutionalization and long-term commitments sometimes for a lifetime and not cures became the rules of the day (Ives, 1914). Asylums became yet another invisible empire in America with the punitive excess and lack of care or caring ignored by society. â€Å"Out of sight, out of mind† was the catch phrase of these unfortunates.   With the discovery of tranquilizing drugs, these places became a place where patients were put into a controllable stupor, until a cure could be found.   Because of longer and longer periods of institutionalization usually by family members finally got the attention of the courts. In the 1960’s the rights of all citizens, including the mentally ill and convicts, were being re-examined at every level. The abuses in the back wards of the asylums were brought to light and the counter-reaction was extreme.   In the early 1970’s, state after state adopted policies under the Community Mental Health Act that swept the country.   The essential goal was to release all inmates of the asylums who were not a clear and present danger to themselves and society.   This act flooded the central cities of America with tens of thousands of mentally impaired street people and created poorhouses.   The response by most jurisdictions has been to transfer the problem to the criminal justice system, filling the jails and correctional institutions of America, a process known as transintitutionalization (Arrigo, 2002). There appears to be some confusion between physical disease and mental disease.   Because physicians have made great strides in gaining knowledge about physical disease, it is assumed by some people that this is also true of physicians’ knowledge about mental disease.   That is the tendency is to apply the same standards of competence to both areas of practice, even though this is hardly warranted. The distinction between crime and mental illness is unclear.   Some of the writers assume that nearly all criminal behavior is a manifestation of mental disease.   It seems that the reason for both of these ambiguities is that we really do not know what mental illness is, and that is the reason we cannot distinguish between mental illness and physical illness on the one hand and mental illness and crime on the other.   It is unfortunate that the long indeterminate sentences often given to mentally disordered offenders reflect a fear that those committed might be a problem in the future. It is the expectation that someone is capable of predicting criminal inclination that makes so questionable the programs for treating the mentally disordered.   So, one can see the paradox of requiring psychiatrists to predict behavior and to attach a label to offenders, when that might result in an indefinite or even lifelong commitment to a mental institution for someone who is not really dangerous, such as a false-positive prediction.   The individual is then labeled for custody and treatment in a special area within that institution.   When you consider the wealth of folklore surrounding mental institutions, it becomes clear that a dreadful lifelong stigma accompanies the label of criminally insane.   While the public remains upset by the gaping loophole in the net of justice, the courts continue to seek out equitable ways to deal with the offender who has diminished mental capacity. Reference: Arrigo, B. (2002). â€Å"Transcarceration: A Costructive Ethnology of Mentally-Ill    Offenders†.   Prison Journal 81(2), 162-186. Callahan, L., McGreevy, M., & Cirincione, C. (1992).   â€Å"Measuring the Effects of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Guilty but Mentally Ill Verdict: Georgia’s 1982 GBMI Reform†.   Law and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Human Behavior 16(4), 447-462. Galliher, J. (1989).   Criminology: Human Rights, Criminal Law, and Crime.   N.J.:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prentice Hall. Hans, V. (1986).   â€Å"An analysis of Public Attitudes toward the Insanity Defense†.   Criminology 24(3), 393-413. Ives, G. (1914). A History of Penal Methods.   London: S. Paul. Sigurdson, C. (2001).   â€Å"The Mad, The Bad and The Abandoned: The mentally Ill in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prisons and Jails†.   Corrections Today 62(7), 162-186. Steadman, H. (1991).   â€Å"Estimating Mental Health Needs and Service Utilization Among   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Prison Inmates.†Ã‚   Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law    19(3), 297-307. Steadman, H. J. & Monahan, J. (1984).   Crime and Mental Disorder.   Washington, D.C.:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   U.S. Department of Justice. Wessely, S., & Taylor, P.J. (1991). â€Å"Madness and Crime: Criminology versus   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Psychiatry†.   Criminal Justice

European Renaissance

Empire and the Pope Renaissance is the name traditionally bestowed upon the remarkable outpouring of intellectual and artistic energy and talent that accompanied the transition of Europe from the middle ages to the modern epoch. The term is extended to politics and economics as well. The Renaissance was one of the most significant movements in European history, because it effected a change in man's attitude towards the problem of human existence. However, historians have long debated what is meant by the term ‘Renaissance'.For some it is a distinctive period, for others a momentous event and for a third group a definable movement of ideas and beliefs. Each choice has its problem and detractors. The Dutch historian Johan Hugging wrote. ‘At the sound of the word ‘Renaissance' the dreamer of past beauty sees purple and gold'. More exactly he or she sees in the minds eye Botulism's Birth of Venus, Michelangelo David, Leonardo Monomials, Erasmus, the Chateaux of the Loir e and Faerie Queen, all rolled into one, into a composite picture of a golden age of creativity and culture.Jacob Bureaucrat in his famous Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860) defined the period in terms of two concepts, individualism and modernity. He wrote, ‘In the Middle Ages human consciousness †¦ Lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil†¦ Man was conscious of himself only as a member of a race, people, party, family or corporation – only through some general category. In Renaissance Italy, however, the veil first melted into thin air†¦ An became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such, Renaissance meant modernity. It began in Italy and at a later stage spread to the rest of Europe. Peter Burke comments that the grand edifice created by Bureaucrat and his contemporaries has not stood the test of time. It has been undermined by the researchers – the medievalists in particular. They argue that – in the firs t place the ‘Renaissance men' were really rather medieval. They were more traditional in their behavior assumptions and ideals than we tend to think.Two of the most famous books written in 6th century Italy, the ‘Courtier' and the ‘Prince', have turned out to be closer to the Middle Ages than they appear. Secondly, the medievalists have accumulated arguments to the effect that the Renaissance was not such a singular event as Bureaucrat and his contemporaries once thought and the term should really be used n the plural. There were famous ‘Renaissance' n the Middle Ages, notably on the 12th Century and in the age of Charlemagne.Can we therefore assume there was no Renaissance at all? Here Peter Burke comes to our rescue. He says, ‘ if we describe the Renaissance in purple and gold, as an isolated cultural miracle or as the sudden emergence of modernity, my own answer would be ‘no'. If however, the word is used without prejudice to the achievements o f the Middle Ages, or those of the world beyond Europe, to refer to a particular cluster of changes in western culture, then it ay be regarded as an organizing concept which still has its uses. ‘ J. M.Thompson has very succinctly summed up what is meant by the Renaissance. ‘Let the word be freedom. Freedom from the tyranny – none the less cramping because so easily borne – of the medieval world order. Freedom of thought from Aristotle as interpreted by Aquinas. Freedom in history from the parochialism and credulity of the monastic chronicler. Freedom in art, from the illustrated manuscript and the stained glass window. Freedom of literature from the censorship of the Church. In politics freedom from feudalism: in religion from traditionalism.With a new universe in the sky, a new world across the sea and anew learning on his study shelf, the 16th century student might well feel that the old age was passing away and that the dawn off new age was at hand. â₠¬Ëœ SOCIAL ROOTS The Renaissance was actually not so much a particular movement as a concrete expression of changing mentalities in a new world. A movement implies a definite period of activity with a precise beginning and end. The Renaissance had neither. It is however generally assumed to have started with the activities of the first humanist Francesco Patriarch as he is commonly known.The Renaissance flourished due to the patronage of the Popes, princes, cardinals and merchants. The 1 5th century Italy was rich enough to support an extravagant and self-indulgent merchant aristocracy. In the urban centre of Northern Italy which possessed a high degree of cultural self consciousness as well as economic buoyancy, urban identity and pride was reflected in the construction of the churches and public buildings and through the emergence of universities as centre of learning.As the Northern Italian urban society was based on individual property and private contract, the most important ed ucated roofs were those who dealt with commercial and industrial activities, I. E. , lawyers and notaries who had to attain mastery of Roman law and Latin (the language of the law courts) and who were able to quote from the Classical and the Christian authors as well as had developed an interest in the language literature, institutes and customs of antiquity. Patriarch and Vacation are pointed out as the pioneers of the Renaissance, the precursors or pre-humanists were all either lawyers or notaries.Religion still occupied an important place and the Pietas, Madonna's, Crucifixion and he innumerable saints portrayed in Renaissance art, show that the traditional faith of most artists remained Christianity. Renaissance society was essentially aristocratic. It offered economic, intellectual and political opportunities to only a small number. But it did not possess the usually universally accepted standard of nobility. The Commercial Revolution of the high Middle Ages and the social chan ges connected with it had already undermined the aristocracy of blood.The Great Depression of the mid 14th century and the stagnation which followed, shook the financial security of the aristocracy of wealth. The aristocratic structure of the society during the Renaissance period persisted and was not submerged by the growth of the merchant class. The Renaissance witnessed as much penetration of the ideas and manners of the nobility into the ethos of the bourgeoisie as the other way round. Noble births were desired but it was the sophisticated merchants of Florence and Venice who helped to promote civility, and to widen the horizons of the aristocratic life.Now for a soldier, statesman, priest or a merchant to be known as a gentleman, a knowledge of the ancient classics and an appreciation of art, literature, music and of conversation ere necessary. The Renaissance was the work of hundreds of gifted men living in scores of cities like Vaccine, Riming, Ferreira, Robin, Mantra and Pra m. But it was the strongest in the four cities – Florence, Milan, Rome and Venice. Florence cradled the Renaissance and produced a remarkable number of gifted artists while Rome and Milan patronized these artists.The Renaissance reached Venice late but stayed here longer. The Renaissance enriched artistic influence spread all over Europe. One of the reasons as to why the Renaissance was Italian in origin was the continuous reminder of her read past provided by the ruins of temples and villas especially in the city of Rome. From the 1 5th century a new appreciation of these classical ruins appeared and the Renaissance Popes ordered their preservation and encouraged their excavation. Pope and princes competed with each other in making collection of ancient objects.The interest in Greek thought and literature, among those who discovered and collected ancient manuscripts, was also stimulated by contacts with the Byzantine Empire through Venetian and Genomes traders. The princes a nd republics of the Renaissance lived in dangerous and unsafe times but they desired fame, which could be expressed in something more concrete and permanent than war, such as buildings, arts, pageants and patronage. They all tried to immortality their greatness by constructing buildings and encouraging painting and sculpture.Leonardo dad Vinci sought the patronage of Cesar Boring as well as Spoors, Raphael began his career in war ravaged Peruvian, Ladino's frescoes, Liberties churches and Vitiation's influence in education, all brought fame to Mantra. Social circumstances were also very favorable to the artists and craftsman. There was a deep rooted tradition of early Christian Europe that buildings were a part of Christian life. So the wealthy ordered their parish churches and founded and patronized monasteries, nunneries and cathedrals. The Popes were the foremost in this field.It was also a custom for the princes to adorn their palaces, and so provide an impetus to the crafts of metal work, jewelry, tapestries and frescoes. Since the competitive state system of the Renaissance Italy was obsessed not only with power and war but also with the furtherance of art, Venice and Florence, the two republics were Jealous of their menus. Money and social energy was poured into art. In the competition of artists was added the competition for artists. Now merchant princes and despots were vying for the service of the great architects, sculptors, painters and scholars.Many of the rulers of the smaller states cultivated a princely style of generosity to arts and magnificence in order to popularize their rule. The patrons spent their fortunes in ways that would benefit the community. The building of chapels and the commissioning of many public works of art were a result of a new conception of wealth spent for civil purposes. New modes of religious thought and feeling underlay new styles in architecture, sculpture and painting. With patronage becoming competitive, the arts became more costly.Renaissance society was meant for rich men, rich cities and rich Popes. To maintain the expenses of the Renaissance art, culture and society, an active and profitable commerce was essential. Venice, Florence, Milan and Rome were full of wealthy men who patronized the Renaissance achievements and nurtured genius. Among the Italians, the Florentine especially revered the wisdom, grace, philosophy and literature of the antiquity. By 1400 there ere hundreds of merchants of Italy who could afford to patronize art when earlier it was only the prerogative of the aristocracy.In Florence, Milan, Rome and Venice, the practice and patronage of art had become a civic virtue. Ferreira, Bologna and Robin also had talents. Though the cities of the papal states was war torn because the Pope was in Avignon, and both trade and population had declined there, yet artistic life did flourish in Peruvian (Perusing frescos, Bastion's and Repeal's paintings). Constant fighting turned the Renaissance historians and political philosophies into supporters f tyranny, since it ensured peace and order, as in the case of Machiavelli.Renaissance statecraft is typified by a single man – Nicola Machiavelli – who belonged to Florence. He was highly influenced by the constant warfare of those times and also by the fact that Florence continued to be a republic in spite of the ambitions of the Duke of Milan. By resisting him, the Florentine saved the liberty of both Florence and Italy. The outcome of the crisis made Florence the centre of new humanism, a new appreciation of political liberty and civic virtue and a new attitude towards man's place in society.It was this attitude that ensured the independence of the major Italian states and consequently the vigor and diversity of Italian artistic and cultural development which characterized the Renaissance. Trade, high finance, a large and a partially urbanize population, quickening industry and the absence of a deepl y rooted, all-powerful political structure, all helped the future development of Renaissance Italy. Renaissance was a movement of cities where a rich urban class, free from the pressures of feudalism flourished. The Italian city-state formed a perfect domicile for the Renaissance art and literature.